How Don Juan de Oñate almost exterminated the Acoma Puebloans
In 1599, Spanish forces wiped out most of the Acoma Pueblo people in one of the worst massacres in American history.
Don Juan de Oñate’s revenge campaign killed 800 Native Americans and enslaved the survivors after his nephew died demanding food from their winter stores. The brutal three-day siege used cannons against stone walls and arrows.
Here’s the full story of this dark chapter, now preserved at Acoma Sky City where you can visit today.
Spain gives Oñate permission to conquer
In 1595, King Philip II granted conquistador Juan de Oñate permission to colonize what’s now New Mexico. Oñate assembled 500 colonists, 7,000 livestock, soldiers, and Franciscan priests for the expedition.
The Spanish Crown wanted control over Pueblo territories as part of expanding New Spain. His mission was straightforward: explore the unknown lands, establish settlements, and spread Catholicism through new missions.
This colonization effort would bring Oñate face-to-face with thousands of Pueblo people who had no intention of surrendering their homeland.
Spanish soldiers kick families from homes
Oñate’s expedition crossed the Rio Grande in March 1598 and reached San Juan de los Caballeros by July. At each pueblo, he demanded the inhabitants swear loyalty to the Spanish king and Catholic church.
But Oñate went beyond ceremonies. At Ohke and Yunque pueblos, he drove Indian families from their homes and moved his own colonists in.
Generations of Pueblo families suddenly found themselves homeless, forced to survive in the countryside while Spanish settlers took over their houses. This harsh treatment set the tone for Spanish-Pueblo relations throughout the region.
Acoma discovers Spain’s forced relocation plan
Word reached Zutacapan, Acoma’s spiritual leader, about Spanish intentions. The plan was brutal: force all Pueblo people to abandon their mesa-top communities and move to valley settlements under direct Spanish control.
There, they would convert to Catholicism, abandon traditional beliefs, and work as forced laborers under the encomienda system. Zutacapan understood this meant cultural extinction for his people.
Acoma’s leadership decided to resist, confident their 365-foot mesa fortress had never been conquered since 1150 AD.
Oñate narrowly escapes assassination attempt
That fall, Oñate toured pueblos to solidify Spanish control. When he visited Acoma in October to receive loyalty oaths, the pueblo leadership had secretly planned his murder.
Armed warriors waited in an underground kiva, ready to kill the Spanish governor during a ceremonial tour. Oñate’s suspicious men talked him out of descending into the kiva, unknowingly saving his life.
He left Acoma completely unaware of the assassination plot and headed west seeking the Pacific Ocean.
Nephew demands winter food supplies
On December 4, 1598, Oñate sent his nephew Juan de Zaldívar with 16 soldiers to collect supplies from Acoma. As winter approached, food was scarce throughout the region.
Zaldívar climbed the steep mesa and demanded corn and stored provisions from pueblo leaders. When the Acoma refused, explaining they needed these supplies to survive winter, the Spanish allegedly attacked Acoma women.
Soldiers broke into homes, smashing walls and seizing food and blankets by force.
Warriors throw Spanish bodies off mesa
The confrontation exploded into deadly violence. Acoma warriors fought back against the Spanish assault, killing Juan de Zaldívar and eleven of his men atop the mesa.
The warriors then hurled the Spanish bodies off the cliff toward the remaining soldiers below. Only four Spanish survivors managed to escape by jumping from the mesa and fleeing across the desert.
They split into groups to warn San Juan colonists, alert missionaries, and report the devastating attack to Oñate.
Franciscan priests declare holy war
Heavy snow forced Oñate to abandon his Pacific expedition and return toward San Juan. That’s when messengers brought word of his nephew’s death and the destruction of the Spanish force.
Enraged, Oñate convened a war council and consulted Franciscan friars about the proper response. After hearing survivor testimony, the priests declared this a “just war” under Spanish law.
Since Acoma had sworn vassalage to the Spanish crown, their resistance constituted treason punishable by total war.
Vicente leads revenge expedition
Oñate ordered Juan’s brother, Vicente de Zaldívar, to punish Acoma and terrorize other pueblos into submission. Vicente understood the Spanish were vastly outnumbered and needed to make a brutal example.
He departed San Juan in late December with seventy soldiers and small cannons, arriving at Acoma on January 21, 1599. Following orders, Vicente offered peace three times but demanded the pueblo surrender the warriors responsible for killing his brother.
Acoma holds mesa for two days
Battle erupted the morning of January 22 as Spanish soldiers assaulted the mesa under a hail of arrows and stones. The Acoma’s natural fortress proved nearly impregnable, repelling Spanish attacks throughout the first day.
On the second day, Vicente’s men continued their assault while defenders rained projectiles down from above. The pueblo that had never fallen to any enemy was holding firm against Spanish steel and gunpowder.
Vicente realized conventional attacks wouldn’t breach Acoma’s ancient defenses.
Cannon fire shatters stone stronghold
On January 24, Vicente executed a flanking maneuver. While soldiers created a diversion, he led twelve men up a secret path carrying their small cannon.
The backbreaking climb took hours, but they reached the mesa’s edge undetected. When the cannon opened fire, its blasts shattered stone buildings and created panic among defenders who had never faced artillery.
Fire spread through the pueblo as Spanish soldiers stormed the settlement. The fortress that had stood unconquered for centuries finally fell to European military technology.
King banishes Oñate for excessive cruelty
Spanish soldiers killed approximately 500 Acoma men and 300 women and children during the three-day massacre. They marched 500 survivors to Santo Domingo for trial on February 12, 1599.
Oñate imposed savage punishments: men over 25 had their right foot amputated and served twenty years slavery. All other survivors over 12 became forced laborers for two decades.
Two Hopi men had hands severed as a warning to other tribes. When King Philip III learned of these atrocities, he banished Oñate from New Mexico for excessive cruelty, ending the conquistador’s brutal reign.
Visiting New Mexico History Museum
The New Mexico History Museum at 113 Lincoln Avenue in Santa Fe houses the “Telling New Mexico” permanent exhibit that covers Juan de Oñate’s colonial period and the Acoma events.
You’ll see Spanish colonial artifacts, manuscripts, and documents from the early settlement era. The adjoining Palace of the Governors, built in 1610, was the actual seat of Spanish colonial government where Oñate’s successors ruled.
Inside the Palace, you can view archaeological excavations through floor panels revealing original foundations, plus Spanish colonial furniture and religious artifacts. Native American artisans sell traditional crafts under the Palace portal daily. Admission costs $12 for non-residents, $7 for New Mexico residents, with children under 16 free.
This article was created with AI assistance and human editing.
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